Writing Report: Sampling

2013 A Guide to Report Writing CONTENTS scalawag 1. 2 INTRODUCTION provision 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 3 1 2 gateway. 2 Purpose 2 Planning .. 2 Research . 3 CONTENTS OF A REPORT 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 3. 8 3. 9 3. 10 3. 11 induction. 3 Title Page 3 Contents Page .. 3 The Summary The entrance 3 The Main Body of the Text .. 4 The Conclusion. 5 References . 5 Appendices . reciprocation Limits 5 Word/Page Guides . 6 7 4 STRUCTURE AND CLARITY 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 display. 7 Structure Unity and Sequence . 7 Clarity the lend oneself of signposts 10 5 STYLE 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 5. 6 admission.. 10 Words and Sentences 10 Tense . 11 routine of send backs and Diagrams .. 11 Presentation 1 How to remediate your style .. . 11 12 6 DATA PRESENTATION 6. 1 6. 2 6. 3 Introduction.. 12 Tables or write in codes? 12 The Use of Tables and figures in Reports . 12 14 7 USE OF REFERENCES 7. 1 7. 2 7. 3 7. 4Introduction.. 15 Why Use References? 15 Citing References in the Text.. 1 5 listing of References .. 16 16 REFERENCES 1 INTRODUCTION Effective scripted communication skills get out be of great(p) importance to you both at College and in your cargoner.The purpose of this document is to carry over service you to develop these skills by performing as a handy reference during the donnish Development module and the recess of your course. Effective indite communication depends on adapting your create verbally to the circumstances, to the nature of the message and, above all, to the requirements of the leader. For this reason, you will expect to physical exercise galore(postnominal) antithetic forms of communication in your c atomic number 18er. You whitethorn claim to salvage strain or technical reports, worry letters, memos, instruction manuals and so on. This guide concentrates on only one of these, the technical or business report.However, the principles make up ones mind out here founder to m both opposite types of communication. The g reat elements in effective report theme ar the planning and general organisation of the report, the structure of the content, the style of writing, the presentation of numerical and graphical information and the use of references. Each of these will be dealed in the foliates that follow. 1 2 2. 1 PREPARATION Introduction How do you set about writing your report? out front writing the report you essential(prenominal) identify the purpose, plan the circumscribe and research the material. 2. 2 Purpose Consider who the report is being write for.A college assignment for the module tutor will be read from cover to cover and will tax your understanding of the subject. However, in industry it is likely that around people wont scram cadence to read the full report so will only read the summary and resultants. Therefore you need to assess who the report is written for and what they be going to do with it. A nonher key point to dish out is wherefore you ar writing the report. A report should always defend a clear objective. Before you pour down writing ask yourself why do they wishing it what is the purpose what do they want it to cover what do they not want it to cover? . 3 Planning Writing reports involves gathering details. It is essential to start off by brainstorming what you beget been asked to do. A simple method of doing this is to indite down, in the shopping centre of a plain piece of paper, the most important word or briefly phrase, in that locationfore spell down any ideas that link to the purpose of the report. (See Mind Mapping Study Guide on Moodle) . 2. 4 Research (a) Preparing to do your research Before looking up references, sketch out the main things that you atomic number 18 looking for. This helps to make the research more purposeful, and shadower save you going off at a tangent or getting distracted.You will, of course, find out things which change your original outline. (b) Doing the research Take notes from as galor e(postnominal) different sources as you practically can books, journals, magazines, internet documents, etc. Useful Tips (1) Write your notes on a separate piece of paper or card index card for each reference. This go forths you to variety them out into a rational vagabond later on to match the structure of the report. (2) For each reference, write down full details of origin, title, chapter, date, etc. This can save lots of epoch when you come to write your reference list, as you wont learn to go back to the original documents. Section 7 ) 2 3 3. 1 CONTENTS OF A REPORT Introduction Technical and business reports are normally split into a series of sections which relieve oneself distinct and well recognised functions. These sections, in regularise of presentation, are the summary, introduction, main body of the change by reversal, the contendion (or interpretation) and the endpoint. They may be followed by a list of references and appendices. The functions of each of t hese sections are depict below. 3. 2 Title paginate The title page highlights the central theme of the report and ncludes the title, authors name, date and, if essential, the name of the person or organisation who commissioned the report. 3. 3 Contents Page The circumscribe page is a list of all your chapters, sections, aims, sub headings, appendices and illustrations. All provided the shortest of reports should have a circumscribe page. 3. 4 Summary The purpose of the summary is to give a very brief outline of the rest of the report for people who do not want to read the alone of it, or who want to slam what is in the report before reading it. The acid test is whether the content of the report is clear to mortal who reads only the summary.The summary should, in that respectfore, contain such information (from the introduction, main text, discussion and conclusion) that is needed to comprehend the circumscribe fully. The summary should be (a) written later on the rest of the report (b) presented at the start of the report (c) factual, concise, and in an appropriate style. (see Section 5 in this guide) The summary should not be a re-statement of the conclusion 3. 5 Introduction The purpose of the introduction is to tell the reader what the aim of the work is and how you are going to rein it (see also Section 4. 3).In other manner of speaking, you must tell the reader (a) what you are going to write about, (b) why you are going to write about it, (c) how you are going to deal with it. 3 The introduction should, therefore, involve a brief general background to the topic or task, a statement of the purpose of the work and an indication of the structure of the rest of the report. It may also include a statement to indicate link up areas that you are not going to deal with (a consideration of x and y is outside the background knowledge of this work). The introduction should be (a) brief (for a typical course assignment, ? 1 side), (b) clear and conc ise, (c) stimulating. 3. 6 Main Body of the Text (but dont put this as a heading ) Go back to Section 1 of the report does this introduction satisfy these criteria? The main body of the text should be arranged under a series of headings according to the purpose of the work. For example, if the work is a scientific investigation, or a survey of some sort, the headings may be Materials and Methods Results word of honor (See Useful Tip below) A homogeneous structure can be adopted for a whole range of task-based reports.For example, if you had to report to the farm charabanc on the reorganisation of the farm office, you might use headings such as Methods Used In The investigating Findings Alternative Courses of Action On the other hand, you may exclusively be required to review a topic put forward the sheep industry in the UK. In this exercise the text may be dissever by headings such as Organisation of The Sheep Industry Breeds Production Systems marketing There is, of cour se, a whole range of other ways of organising the material, but however you do it, the importance of a clear logical system cannot be overemphasised.This is discussed further in Section 5. Useful Tips Discussion (Have as a heading if separate section) The discussion is probably the most difficult section of a scientific report to write, but it is very important. In the discussion you should attempt to evaluate (comment critically) on the information presented in the main text. If, for example, you have come across any inconsistencies in the information presented, you should weigh up the evidence for each line within the discussion.If you have carried out your own research it is here you should compare your results with those of other published authors and, if the results differ, endure explanations for the differences. The good news is that once you have reached the end of the discussion, you should know just now what your 4 conclusions are 3. 7 Conclusion The purpose of the conc lusion is to draw out the message from the work and to suggest what the con successivenesss of that message are. It must be distinguished from the summary (which encapsulates the whole report) but should be included in it.In other words, the conclusion should say (a) what the body of the work tells us (b) what should be done about it (action, further research, etc. ). Thus, your conclusion on the reorganisation of the farm office might say, for example, that action x is the topper alternative and this should be implemented in the next two months Dont be worried if your conclusion is short provided you have discussed / interpreted the topic fully, a short conclusion helps the reader to understand. 3. 8 References References should be listed after the conclusion, but before the appendices.Correct presentation of references is important and is described in Section 7. 3. 9 Appendices Appendices are utilise to present material which is not necessary to an understanding of the report, b ut which may be reformative to the reader. By removing such inessential material (for example, extensive sets of data or supplementary information) from the body of the work, the communication is do simpler, shorter and clearer. 3. 10 Word / page limits Many assignment briefs have a word / page limit stated if it is a word limit, you will need to include an accurate word bet in your completed work.Please be aware that word / page limits are rigidly enforced so that any words / pages written after the limit has been reached will not be marked (or other penalties enforced as in the individual major project). 5 Count in Do not include Summary (text only) Reference list Introduction (text only) Appendices Main body (text only) Data in tables Discussion (if applicable text Results in tables only) Any figures (graphs, charts, diagrams) Conclusion (text only) Text displayed in tables Subheadings (summary etc) Captions for tables and figuresNB You need to read the ad hoc instructions f or final year projects as these may vary slightly from the above 3. 11 Word / page guide Occasionally, an assessment task may contain a word or page guide. This is intended to help you judge the number of words / pages you may need to complete the task. There is no specific penalty for work that falls short of or exceeds a word / page guide. 6 4 4. 1 STRUCTURE AND CLARITY Introduction Your aim in technical or business reports should be to make your meaning clear to the reader.In differentiate to do this you must ensure that your writing has a logical structure and that this structure is displayed to the reader by a whole series of signposts. These aspects are informed in this section. 4. 2 Structure Unity and Sequence A logical structure requires two things unity and sequence. The idea of unity is not an easy one to explain. To fall upon unity, it is necessary to separate the various discrete elements of what you want to say into self-contained packages. One way of doing this is to create a mind map that identifies key areas and their relationships fleck helping you to plan the project.Start by writing the central theme in the middle of the paper, and working outwards. skeletal frame 1 illustrates a way in which an assignment based on the Euro could be planned to achieve unity in this way Participating EU countries Non-participating EU countries Countries Summary Key events Implementation Timetable Euro Facts silver and Note Denominations European integration and economic & monetary union The Road To The Euro The EURO Exchange Rate giving medication & European Institutions Organisations Pros & Cons Political Economic Business / Trade Consumers Pro-Euro Anti-Euro Figure 1 Use of patterned notes 7Once you have identified the various topics in this way they can be organised into paragraphs, and paragraphs on related subjects can be organised into sections. It is then necessary to decide on a logical sequence for these sections and paragraphs. The sequenc e depends on the subject matter and the approach. For example it may be in chronological order (e. g. translation of the breeding cycle of sheep or a new product development process) in descending order of importance (e. g. factors affecting the yield of wheat or factors affecting food purchase) in ascending order of importance leading to a conclusion (e. . argument of a case). However, you should aim to present your ideas in an tenacious sequence so that a reader will follow the line of reasoning without difficulty. Determining the best sequence is not always an easy task, especially when dealing with hard subjects. If in doubt discuss your plan with your personal or module tutor they will be happy to help you cipher it out. 4. 3 Clarity the use of signposts To make your writing easy to read it is important to provide stalk signposts that tell the reader where s/he is and where s/he is going. about of the signposts you can use are listed below. a) Title Each piece of work sh ould have a clear descriptive title that gives a guide to the content of the work. You should avoid journalistic titles that tell you little. Thus, The Prevention and Control of Mastitis in the Dairy drove is preferable to Getting to Grips with Mastitis Contents Page All but the shortest of reports should have a contents page. Introduction The introduction should tell the reader what you are going to deal with and how. In foresighteder reports you may use an introduction in each section. Headings Headings and sub-headings should be used freely in technical and business writing.You may have been told not to use heading in English essays, but this does not hold in technical and business reports where headings are very helpful in making your meaning clear. For this reason it is important that the heading system reflects the structure of the report. You should, therefore, adopt a system of headings and sub-headings that intend the relationships of the various sections. (b) (c) (d) 8 Here, for example, is a diagram that shows the structure of a chapter in Burns and Bush (2000). The Nature of trade Research Marketing Marketing Research Defined The role of Marketing ResearchCharacteristics of Marketing Research Types of Marketing research Studies The Marketing Information system The Future of Market Research The Marketing Concept Marketing Strategy and so forth Etc. Etc. Etc. Components of an MIS Etc. Internal Reports Marketing Intelligence System Marketing close Support System Marketing Research System The heading system used in this case must be such that the reader knows, for example, that the section marked Internal Reports is part of the section on Components of an MIS, which is part of the section on The Marketing Information System.To achieve this all headings at the same level of sub-division must be the same. We might therefore have a series of headings as follows THE record OF MARKETING RESEARCH The Marketing Information system Components of an MIS In ternal Reports are defined.. (Bold capitals) (Bold lower case) (Indented rude lower case) (Indented bold lower case on same line as text) (e) Notation If it is necessary to cross reference to other sections of the report then a method of easily identifying the sections may be desirable. The most straightforward and generally used method of short letter is decimal numbering.It clearly shows the hierarchy of your thoughts. 1. 1. 6 THE NATURE OF MARKETING RESEARCH The Marketing Information system 1. 6. 1 Components of an MIS 1. 6. 1. 2 Internal Reports are defined.. 9 (f) Topic Sentences When you are reading you may find topic sentences a helpful device. These are sentences often found at the beginning of a paragraph, which are used as a summary of what is to follow. That is, they are used to make a general statement about the topic which is then developed further in the rest of the paragraph. Useful Tips There is a range of different systems of headings and notation you can use.But remember whichever you use, always be consistent throughout the report. 5 5. 1 STYLE Introduction Do not be frightened by the use of the word style. Style simply means the way you use words and sentences in your writing. The style of effective reports is direct, simple and straightforward. This is easy to say but more difficult to achieve as George Bernard Shaw once wrote I am sorry to have written such a long letter but I did not have time to write a short one. Some rules to help you follow. 5. 2 Words and Sentences George Orwell wrote some helpful rules for scientists who write.He utter a) never use two words when one word will do, b) never use a big word when a small one will do, c) never use a long sentence when a short one will do. Some examples of word savings are shown in Table 1 Table 1 Superfluous words and alternatives Better English as to now when so that in college thus planning Superfluous words on account of the fact that in order to at the present time on the occas ion of with the result that in the college purlieu it is apparent therefore forward planning 10 5. 3 Tense Reports are normally written in the past tense and impersonally. e. g.It is recommended that NOT I recommend that neer write you.. 5. 4 Use of Tables and Diagrams Never use words when you can put your message in come (use a table). Never use numbers when you can use a picture (a diagram or graph) pictures are clearer than numbers numbers are clearer than prose and both save words. But always remember tables and diagrams do need some words of explanation. (Section 6) 5. 5 Presentation Be aware that lowly laid out work, which is badly sequenced with poor word processing or handwriting, frequent spell out mistakes and incorrect grammar will lose you marks. . 6 How to mitigate your style Remember anyone can improve their writing skills through hard work, constructive feedback and practice. Below are some key tips for improving your style. a) Work with a rough design. Complet e a rough draft and leave for a few days then re-read it or ask a friend to read it and make comments. This gives you time to reflect on your report. b) Avoid jargon. Never use jargon unless a) it saves words and b) your readers will understand it. c) Keep it clear and straightforward. A good style is one which is clear and concise so the reader can easily follow it.Useful Tips Always check your work. Before you hand in any work, be it an assignment or an exam script, check it for errors in accuracy such as spelling and punctuation, readability and flow and clarity of structure Avoid plagiarism. You know the penalties (see the plagiarism section in the Academic Development module on Moodle) A CHALLENGE when you have written your draft copy go through it and see if you can remove 25% of the words without changing the meaning. 11 6 6. 1 DATA PRESENTATION Introduction We have already mentioned the value of tables and diagrams in saving words.They also help to make your message clear. H owever, they will only do this if the data is accurate and properly presented in the text. Some simple guidelines on this follow. 6. 2 Tables or Figures? A picture is worth a thousand words All material in your report that is not prose is called either a figure or a table (although photographs are known as plates). Figures include diagrams, graphs and charts. Figures are to be preferred to tables and prose, especially when complex relationships are involved. Tables are necessary when it is important to know exactly what the numbers are.Figures There are many different ways of presenting information as figures. Which one you choose depends on the purpose of the figures, and the nature of the data. Again, there are a number of important rules in presenting data in figures. Some ideas can be found in Figure 2. Tables There are different types of tables for different purposes. Usually tables in reports are intended to demonstrate or support a particular point being made in the text. The y therefore need to be designed to fulfil this purpose. A few guidelines on the presentation of consequence tables are given in Table X in Figure 3. . 3 The Use of Tables and Figures in Reports Numbering In technical reports tables and figures (Table 1n and Figure 1-n) should be numbered in sequence to allow you to refer to them in the text. Captions All tables and figures must have full, clear and stated captions telling the reader exactly what the numbers and units are. The golden rule is that the message of any table or figure must be clear in isolation from the text. Captions go above a table but below a figure. Reference in the text You must always refer to the table or figure in the text before you come to it.Do not repeat details of the table or figure, but summarize what it shows e. g. element yield response to successive increments of utilize nitrogen shows the law of diminishing returns (Figure 1 Table X). Source You must always give the source of the data depicted. L isting List tables and figures after the contents page. 12 50 (% of respondents) Components easy to see and compare All units clearly identified Key to explain bars 25 Axis starts from 0 0 Extremely authorized Very Important Important Not at all Important 2000 2003 Reference clearly statedSource HAUC Consumer Attitude Survey (2000 and 2003) Figure X Comparison of Consumer Attitudes in 2000 and 2003 to the importance of price as a factor when buying food (% of respondents) Numbered in sequence for ease of reference in text Clear, full and explicit title UNDERNEATH get into Figure 2 Presentation of Figures (Example Data Only) 13 Grain yield response to successive increments of applied nitrogen follows the law if diminishing returns (Table X) Reference in text before table showing what the table shows Numbered in sequence for ease of reference in text All units clearly identifiedClear, full and explicit title AT THE TOP Units given as high in the table as potential to avoid repetitio n. If all units are the same they should be included in the title. Table X Grain yield response of wheat to successive increments of applied nitrogen Applied N (kg/ha) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 Yield of wheat (t/ha) 2. 50 3. 50 4. 30 5. 00 5. 20 5. 20 5. 00 Responses to successive applications of 25kg of N (t/kg) +1. 00 +0. 80 +0. 70 +0. 20 0. 00 -0. 20 (Source Bloggs, 2003) Numbers to be compared presented in columns, not rows Columns arranged in some natural order of sizeReference clearly stated Figure 3 Presentation of Tables NB If you are presenting data in a table that you have created yourself, show this by putting (Source Authors own) under the table. 14 7 7. 1 USE OF REFERENCES Introduction Technical writing sometimes includes a bibliography but always includes a list of references. They have different purposes. A bibliography is a systematic list of sources of information on a particular subject which have been consulted although specific facts from them have not been cited in the text.References are the sources of information which have been cited in the text as evidence for statements and assertions. This section provides an introduction to the purpose of using references and the rules which govern their use. 7. 2 Why Use References? In higher education and research, unsupported assertions are not acceptable. In other words, you cannot simply say that something is so without providing supporting evidence. Evidence can be obtained or it can be provided by reference to literary productions of someone who has published such research or who is an acknowledged authority on the subject.Naturally, this does not apply when your assertion is something that is widely understood. It does, however, apply to anything that is new, little known or open to argument. If I said that Shropshire sheep have four legs I would not need to provide evidence. If I said that they have five legs there may be some who would doubt my word. In such a case I would need to provide ev idence, either by doing research (counting the number of legs of randomised samples of the Shropshire sheep population), or by reference to the writing of an authority on this subject who had done such work. . 3 Citing References in the Text In order to draw the readers attention to the supporting evidence you simply write the surname of the author and the date of publication of the paper or book in the text. This can be done in more than one way, thus It has recently been shown that Shropshire sheep have five legs (Smith, 2012). or Smith (2012) recently demonstrate that Shropshire sheep have five legs. The reader now knows that you have an authority for your statement.